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Archimandrite Palladius (In secular life, Pyotr Ivanovich Kafarov)
The essay is dedicated to one of the founders of Russian Chinese studies, Archimandrite Palladius (Kafarov) (1817–187
, who conducted ethnographic, archaeological, and geographical research in the Primorye region.
Pyotr Ivanovich Kafarov (in monasticism Archimandrite Palladius) received his education at the Chistopol Spiritual School, Kazan Theological Seminary, and Saint Petersburg Theological Academy.
Not completing the full course, he was tonsured a monk and ordained as a hierodeacon, becoming a member of the XII Spiritual Mission in Beijing. In subsequent missions (XIII and XV) Archimandrite Palladius was invited as a leader.
Over his thirty-two years in China, he compiled a Chinese-Russian dictionary, popularizing the Cyrillic transcription system for Chinese, and wrote several works on Oriental studies.
The sun, rising, brightly illuminated the mountains. The day before, there had been a heavy rain, and the air was exceptionally clear and fresh. The vast plain was green with sprouting crops. Through the northeastern gates of Beijing, five covered two-wheeled carts set off, each bearing yellow triangular signs. These indicated that someone from the great Russian Empire was traveling.
In the front cart, sitting thoughtfully and swaying slightly in rhythm with the steps of the unhurried mules, was an elderly man in travel attire. This was the head of the Beijing Spiritual Mission, Archimandrite Palladius, known in the secular world as P.K. Kafarov. His journey was from Beijing toward Blagoveshchensk.
What compelled the esteemed Wa, as Palladius was called by the Chinese, to set aside his beloved sinology work and embark on such a long and difficult journey?
In May 1869, the Russian Geographical Society in St. Petersburg received a notice from the Naval Ministry about the dispatch of a large governmental commission to Primorye, led by General-Adjutant Skolkov.
This commission was tasked with determining the future development of the region and finally resolving the issue that had been the subject of endless debates for several years: where it would be more advantageous to station the naval and land defense forces—Vladivostok or Posyet?
At the Russian Geographical Society, a special commission was hastily formed, including prominent scholar-travelers such as P.A. Helmersen, P.A. Kropotkin, R.K. Maak, G.I. Radde, A.S. Sgibnev, and L.I. Schrenk. Their task was to determine how the Geographical Society could participate in this endeavor.
These individuals were well acquainted with the Far East, each having extensively explored Primorye and the Amur regions. Therefore, there were no disputes or disagreements among them regarding the upcoming expedition. After a thorough review of scientific works on the Amur and Ussuri regions, the commission made decisions on the further development of the Far Eastern frontier.
In the final session's minutes, titled "Proposals for the Expedition to the Amur Region in 1869," they recorded that "the first condition for success is the elimination of all artificial and forced measures, and it is necessary to consider the potential that the natives themselves present for their future development and acceptance of Russian citizenship."
Indeed, despite the natural science expeditions to the Far East by Maksimovich, Budishchev, Maack, Przhevalsky, geologists Anosov and Lopatin, as well as numerous topographers, the ethnography of the region remained a mystery.
Very little was known about the indigenous population of the Amur region, their daily lives, needs, and concerns, as well as their relations with Russian settlers on the one hand, and with the inhabitants of neighboring Manchuria and Korea on the other.
Only the work of A.D. Brylkin made a small contribution to this area of knowledge. Meanwhile, the issue of the small ethnic groups of the Far East was becoming increasingly pressing at that time, which is why there arose the need for a specialized ethnographic expedition.
A Chinese from Aigun in Primorye. Manzi – Chinese workers in Primorye. Around 1875. Photos by V.V. Lanin
The research was to be conducted comprehensively starting with the border areas adjacent to China, namely the Ussuri region, where a relatively small area hosts numerous ethnic groups. Alongside this, it was proposed to carry out archaeological work, examining the remains of ancient settlements, ruins, and fortifications.
For conducting these tasks, no figure was better suited than Palladius-Kafarov. “His profound knowledge in geography, history, and philology of Manchuria, China, and Korea provided the best assurance that his trip would yield the most abundant and important results,” wrote P.P. Semenov-Tian-Shansky about this prominent ethnographer.
While the official correspondence with the Ober-Procurator of the Holy Synod regarding Palladius’s permission to participate in the expedition was underway, the Secretary of the Geographical Society, F.R. Osten-Sacken, wrote a personal letter to the archimandrite offering him the opportunity to undertake the journey.
He immediately responded, expressing his agreement and stating his intention to travel to the Primorye region not by the usual caravan route through Mongolia and then Kyakhta, but directly through Blagoveshchensk. This route could provide entirely new information about the journey.
The permission from the religious authorities was soon granted, and Palladius began preparing for the journey. The Governor-General of Eastern Siberia, M.S. Korsakov, assigned him an experienced topographer, Grigory Nakhvalny, who was to create new maps of the route based on visual surveys. Nakhvalny was a seasoned topographer, having contributed to most of the maps of Siberia and the Far East.
On June 21, 1870, after successfully reaching the Russian frontier, the expedition traveled down the Amur River to Khabarovka, where they transferred to the steamboat Sungacha and sailed up the Ussuri River. On July 7, the travelers crossed Lake Khanka and arrived at Kamyeny-Rybolov, a small military post, and three days later, they took a boat to the village of Nikolskoye, which Palladius had chosen as the main site for their work.
Village of Nikolskoye. Around 1875. Photo by V.V. Lanin
The village of Nikolskoye (now the city of Ussuriysk) was located on the postal route from Vladivostok to the Kamyshlov post. As Palladius noted in his diary, it consisted of "seventy households; since each peasant tried to occupy as much land as possible for his house and garden, the settlement spread out over a large area.
The inhabitants, almost exclusively Astrakhan settlers, brought with them their dialects, customs, beliefs, and house arrangements. They do not welcome immigrants from other Russian provinces and try to push them away, which is why the Voronezh settlers formed a separate street, apart from the Astrakhan settlers."
The traveler Alyabyev, who visited Nikolskoye a year before Palladius, recounted the following episode in his work "Faraway Russia — The Ussuri Region." He wrote: "The wife of the peasant with whom I stayed was talking about her former homeland and, for some reason I can't recall, mentioned the difficulties of fasting here. Wanting to comfort her, I said:
"What can be done? God will forgive, after all, this isn't Russia. I used the word 'Russia' in the sense that all the locals use it, meaning that they were not native to this place."
"No, sir, that’s nothing, — she replied, — we'll live here a little longer, and we’ll make this Russia ourselves..."
The very next day, Palladius set out to explore the ancient settlement near Nikolskoye. Walking along the massive rampart, he saw traces of ancient streets and houses. He spent about ten days studying the surrounding area.
In his sketches, he marked the remaining statues of people and rams. Palladius also carefully examined a stone turtle standing on a small mound. In the village, he acquired more than ten copper coins, found by settlers in the ruins of the ancient settlement, shedding some light on the history of the region.
F.F. Busse Archaeological site plan in the village of Nikolskoye. 1885. OIAK Archive.
The Chinese researcher Chen Kaike noted that Palladius also took an interest in the Koreans while in Nikolskoye.
In a letter to the Geographic Society in St. Petersburg, Palladius wrote:
"All my time is taken up by trips, travels, inspections, and organizing my notes. I hope that winter will give me more leisure time. The summer season is not very convenient for examining antiquities: everything is overgrown with thick, tall grass or dense forest thickets; moreover, it rains constantly here. I am waiting for autumn to supplement and verify my observations. …
It is needless to repeat that this region presents a vast field for archaeological research; for example, almost the entire course of the Suifun River (Razdolnaya) was lined with settlements and military fortifications, and the area around the village of Nikolskoye seemed especially important in a strategic sense."
One of Palladius' main tasks was to gather information about the smaller ethnic groups, particularly the Nanai people. By the time the traveler reached Nikolskoye, they had already migrated to northern Primorye, so the scholar decided to search for them there, boarding a passing steamboat from Vladivostok.
At the end of July, after leaving Nakhvalnykh in Nikolskoye to finish drawing up the final map of Primorye, Palladius departed for Vladivostok. At the mouth of the Razdolnaya River, he boarded the "Suifun," a small passenger steamboat. It seemed that even the small waves of Amur Bay threatened to break the "delicate, thin, and at the same time long" vessel, as Palladius described it.
However, the crossing ended successfully. Captain Weckman skillfully navigated into Semyonovsky Cove and docked at a small pier. The traveler struggled to step over the roughly cut logs meant for the Vladivostok post, which lay scattered chaotically along the shore.
Eagle's Hill. Vladivostok, 1871. Photo by V.V. Lanin.
It was possible to reach the post by following a narrow path that led up the hill and crossed a stream. That morning, the rain had started pouring and it was muddy and slippery, making it difficult for Palladius to cover the two miles separating Semenovsky Bay from the post.
In his diary, Palladius described the impression the future city made on him:
“Vladivostok was divided into three parts; the central part was occupied by the city's residents; to the east of it, a mile away, was a military land post called the 'Artillery' because there had once been a battery there, now disbanded; several huge cannons still lay on the shore of the bay. The western part of the city belonged to the naval department; there were barracks for the coast guard, a mechanical establishment, and a small dock. The deserted indentation of the bay was called the Golden Horn.
The city had up to six shops, one of which was Russian; all were filled with poor-quality wines and manufactured goods from Hamburg and America. The population numbered about 800, but most were in service."
During the few days that Palladius stayed in Vladivostok, it either rained or there was a drizzling fog. There were no ships heading to the northern coast, and Palladius was willing to reach at least Nakhodka or Olga. However, the captain of the "Aleut," which was heading there, could not guarantee to take him back before winter, so the trip had to be postponed.
However, on one of the sunny days, he took a trip to Russky Island in Novik Bay. There, he also discovered interesting archaeological finds: traces of an ancient fortress.
Svetlanskaya Street (the location of the current post office) Vladivostok, 1871. Photo by V.V. Lanin
On August 10, having finally given up hope of reaching the northern Primorye, Palladius returned to the village of Nikolskoye. There, he continued his research and observations of the life and customs of the local residents, recent settlers.
"They wandered with various stops for three years until they reached the Kankai District," the scholar wrote in his diary, "and during the journey, they lost a large part of their cattle and money. It would have been much more advantageous to make the move by sea directly to Vladivostok."
The ethnographer got to know the villagers better, visited their homes, and observed the customs and traditions of the settlers. He found the lifestyle of the Nikolskoye inhabitants quite unusual, not typical for central Russia; some aspects seemed as if they had been transported from deep antiquity.
In late autumn, weddings were celebrated in Nikolskoye. Friends of the groom would ride horses into the village, with red ribbons fluttering from their hats. A red flag would be hoisted above the newlyweds' house after the wedding festivities.
In winter, the young people gathered for evening parties. On Christmas and Epiphany, they sang hymns and songs that echoed the past. Palladius wrote that "the Astrakhan people cannot be reproached for their drunkenness, although there are rare cases of binge drinking."
On January 2, 1871, Palladius set out from Nikolskoye to Vladivostok on three sleighs across the frozen river. He intended to depart for Olga at the very beginning of the navigation season. When leaving Nikolskoye, the weather was clear and frosty with no wind, but as he neared the sea, the conditions worsened. The sleigh road to Vladivostok passed through the Amur Bay. Midway, the sleigh Palladius was on fell through the ice, but fortunately, the incident ended without major issues.
In Vladivostok, it was cold and windy. Only one steamship, the "Vostok," was wintering in the bay, having replaced the "Alyut." The military governor of the Primorye region allowed Palladius to use this vessel for trips to Posyet, Nakhodka, and Olga, with only the start of the navigation season remaining to be awaited.
Palladius managed to add to his collection: from a naval officer named Petrov, he acquired a rare ancient artifact—a dark green stone axe, skillfully carved from diorite. The officer had found it while digging a cellar on the bay's shore and willingly sold it to the traveler.
While waiting for the navigation season to begin, Palladius acquainted himself with the early settlers of Vladivostok and engaged in long conversations with them. He noted in his records that "knowledgeable people predict a brilliant future for Vladivostok."
On March 14, a strip of blue water appeared in the East Bosphorus Strait, but it wasn't until two weeks later, on March 30, when a strong southerly wind began moving the ice in Golden Horn Bay. The movement was so forceful that it caused significant damage to the port.
The transport vessel "Baikal," which was moored at the Marine Section (in the area of the current Nakhodka monument), had its hull pierced by massive sharp ice floes. The ship, which stored port supplies such as sails and ropes, sank stern-first onto the ground. Logs, crates, and barrels floated around the bay as water had also flooded the dock. The bow of the "Baikal" was lifted and stuck out of the water, allowing the remaining cargo to slide off the deck into the water. Only the huge stone millstones at the stern held the ship in place due to their weight, but the vessel was doomed.
A year later, Lieutenant Lavrov, commander of the schooner "Alyut," concluded: "… regarding the hull of the 'Baikal,' I believe that making any efforts to raise it is not worthwhile. The best approach to clear the bay is to blow it up with mines," which was eventually done.
But that was a year later; for now, Palladius looked with reverence at the historic vessel of Nakhodka from the steep shore.
On April 5, 1871, the traveler departed for southern Primorye aboard the schooner "Vostok," heading to Posyet Bay. Passing by Gamov Cape, Palladius wrote:
"The cape is named in honor of Officer Gamov of the General Staff, who was part of our scholarly workers' cohort, who with hardships and various difficulties scientifically explored the unknown lands of Primorsky Krai; it would be unforgivable not to immortalize their names alongside the elusive Bosphorus and Golden Horn; we could do without Odysseus, Diomedes, and Patroclus when we have our own Odysseus of science and self-sacrifice."
Certainly, one could argue with Archimandrite Palladius about geographical names, but he was undoubtedly right in raising the issue of immortalizing the names of those who contributed to the exploration of Primorye. He knew firsthand how difficult and arduous the path of a scholar and traveler could be.
However, he was mistaken in one respect: the cape was not named after Officer Gamov, a participant in the Ussuri Expedition, but rather in honor of his namesake, midshipman Dmitry Gamov from the frigate "Pallada," who was the first to sight the cape.
On April 7, the "Vostok" anchored in Posyet. Palladius spent several days there conducting research on the surrounding areas.
"I very much regretted," wrote Palladius, "that I did not meet the former post commander Dyachenko, who had spent many years here and had studied the country thoroughly; he was one of the few surviving companions of Count Muravyov-Amursky, who still fondly remembered the epic times of acquiring the Golden Horn in the Far East."
On the way to Nakhodka, Palladius visited Slavyanka, which was then a very small outpost. He was quite taken with Nakhodka, recalling it as follows:
"This small but deep bay is surrounded by mountains on all sides; the factory is located right on the shore of the bay. A large swamp, intersected by ditches for drying it out, separates the mechanical establishments from the residential houses (about ten houses); a stream of fresh water flows through the middle of the swamp.
At that very moment, a call had just sounded from a wooden tower, and soon life began to stir in this little corner, with the sound of axes in the carpentry shop, the clang of hammers in the blacksmith’s shop, the hissing of steam in the sawmill and the flour mill. It was pleasing to see the neatness of the buildings, the order prevailing everywhere. On a raised spot stood the manager's house with the banner of the estate department."
For nearly a month, Palladius stayed in Nakhodka. During this time, he visited the Golden Valley, where he discovered many archaeological sites.
The traveler spent almost the entire summer conducting research, visiting Olga, Vladimir, and Nakhodka. However, as the expedition’s deadline approached, Palladius began to think about returning to his regular place of service in China.
Upon arrival in Vladivostok, Palladius encountered an unusual vessel: enormous red iron wheels on the bow and stern of the steamboat, with a long black hull, which made it stand out among the sleek sailing ships.
This was the "Africa," belonging to the Danish Telegraph Company, which was preparing to lay an underwater cable between Vladivostok, Nagasaki, and Shanghai. Next to the "Africa" was the military frigate "Tordenskjold"—an old wooden sailing ship with a massive rig, which was accompanying the "Africa."
Upon learning that these ships were scheduled to depart in the coming days, Palladius asked the commander of the frigate, Luntz, if he could join as a passenger. The commander kindly agreed. That same evening, the scholar said farewell to the officers of the "Vostok," with whom he had become very close during the sea voyage. In turn, the officers honored the scholar by transferring him to the frigate in a boat.
Soon, both Danish vessels weighed anchor and took to the open sea. There, the "Africa" was fitted with a cable from the telegraph station, and it proceeded at a slow pace towards the open sea.
Unfortunately, the ethnographer's report on the expedition to Primorye was not published. The extensive information collected remained only in the form of diary entries and brief notes.
On the way from China to St. Petersburg, Palladius passed away.
The first chairman of the Society for the Study of the Amur Region, Fyodor Fyodorovich Busse, located his manuscript diary from the expedition period at the Russian Geographical Society and attempted to publish it with the help of another active member of the society, Mikhail Grigorievich Shevelev. Viktor Ananyevich Panov, editor of the newspaper Dalniy Vostok, made verbatim selections from this manuscript.
"At present," he informed the readers of Dalniy Vostok, "I am using the data from the diary and the published letters of Palladius both to supplement and clarify each other and as material that, when published for general knowledge, may interest someone and prompt them to contribute to our knowledge of the history and archaeology of the Amur region with their own work, as well as to better understand its ethnography, which remains quite disjointed due to the lack of historical groundwork."
In his presentation of Palladius's diary and letters, Panov selected only those parts directly related to the history and archaeology of the region. Several issues of Dalniy Vostok featured excerpts from the diary, but it was never fully published, and now only a few researchers read the sparse lines of Palladius's narrative preserved in the archive.
"Addressing the population of the Ussuri Region," wrote Archimandrite Palladius, "we cannot fail to notice the profound and significant changes in its tribal composition. The establishment of Russian agricultural settlements has an irresistible influence on the surrounding non-Russian inhabitants."
Archaeological artifacts examined by Archimandrite Palladius in the village of Nikolskoye, now stored in the Museum of the History of the Far East named after V.K. Arseniev.
Chinese researcher Chen Kaike evaluates the results of Archimandrite Palladius’s expedition ambiguously:
“Initially, the expedition was presented as a ‘scientific’ endeavor, but it soon revealed itself as part of a broader strategy of aggressive expansion. This approach was aimed at maintaining control over the newly acquired territories. The strategy involved starting with extensive ‘exploratory trips’ to understand the region, followed by the Russification of these lands. This method was key to the success of Tsarist Russia’s expansion.
It’s evident that Palladius’s expedition to the South-Ussuri region was merely one in a series of similar missions. While his work had significant academic value, it also had a clear political agenda. The extent to which a scholar can choose between scientific and political motives is always uncertain, and Palladius might not have had a choice in the matter.
Nonetheless, the Tsarist Russian authorities did not foresee that these organized expeditions, despite their frequency, would not achieve their goals. Palladius’s expedition ultimately demonstrated that the territory east of the Ussuri River was not unclaimed land prior to Russian occupation, but rather a region inhabited by various Chinese ethnic groups. The antiquities discovered during the expedition stand as clear evidence of this.”
On November 25, 2019, the Saint Petersburg Theological Academy on the Neva River held a ceremonial unveiling of a bust honoring one of the founders of Russian academic sinology—Archimandrite Palladius (Kafarov).
Archimandrite Palladius (In secular life, Pyotr Ivanovich Kafarov)
The essay is dedicated to one of the founders of Russian Chinese studies, Archimandrite Palladius (Kafarov) (1817–187
, who conducted ethnographic, archaeological, and geographical research in the Primorye region.Pyotr Ivanovich Kafarov (in monasticism Archimandrite Palladius) received his education at the Chistopol Spiritual School, Kazan Theological Seminary, and Saint Petersburg Theological Academy.
Not completing the full course, he was tonsured a monk and ordained as a hierodeacon, becoming a member of the XII Spiritual Mission in Beijing. In subsequent missions (XIII and XV) Archimandrite Palladius was invited as a leader.
Over his thirty-two years in China, he compiled a Chinese-Russian dictionary, popularizing the Cyrillic transcription system for Chinese, and wrote several works on Oriental studies.
The sun, rising, brightly illuminated the mountains. The day before, there had been a heavy rain, and the air was exceptionally clear and fresh. The vast plain was green with sprouting crops. Through the northeastern gates of Beijing, five covered two-wheeled carts set off, each bearing yellow triangular signs. These indicated that someone from the great Russian Empire was traveling.
In the front cart, sitting thoughtfully and swaying slightly in rhythm with the steps of the unhurried mules, was an elderly man in travel attire. This was the head of the Beijing Spiritual Mission, Archimandrite Palladius, known in the secular world as P.K. Kafarov. His journey was from Beijing toward Blagoveshchensk.
What compelled the esteemed Wa, as Palladius was called by the Chinese, to set aside his beloved sinology work and embark on such a long and difficult journey?
In May 1869, the Russian Geographical Society in St. Petersburg received a notice from the Naval Ministry about the dispatch of a large governmental commission to Primorye, led by General-Adjutant Skolkov.
This commission was tasked with determining the future development of the region and finally resolving the issue that had been the subject of endless debates for several years: where it would be more advantageous to station the naval and land defense forces—Vladivostok or Posyet?
At the Russian Geographical Society, a special commission was hastily formed, including prominent scholar-travelers such as P.A. Helmersen, P.A. Kropotkin, R.K. Maak, G.I. Radde, A.S. Sgibnev, and L.I. Schrenk. Their task was to determine how the Geographical Society could participate in this endeavor.
These individuals were well acquainted with the Far East, each having extensively explored Primorye and the Amur regions. Therefore, there were no disputes or disagreements among them regarding the upcoming expedition. After a thorough review of scientific works on the Amur and Ussuri regions, the commission made decisions on the further development of the Far Eastern frontier.
In the final session's minutes, titled "Proposals for the Expedition to the Amur Region in 1869," they recorded that "the first condition for success is the elimination of all artificial and forced measures, and it is necessary to consider the potential that the natives themselves present for their future development and acceptance of Russian citizenship."
Indeed, despite the natural science expeditions to the Far East by Maksimovich, Budishchev, Maack, Przhevalsky, geologists Anosov and Lopatin, as well as numerous topographers, the ethnography of the region remained a mystery.
Very little was known about the indigenous population of the Amur region, their daily lives, needs, and concerns, as well as their relations with Russian settlers on the one hand, and with the inhabitants of neighboring Manchuria and Korea on the other.
Only the work of A.D. Brylkin made a small contribution to this area of knowledge. Meanwhile, the issue of the small ethnic groups of the Far East was becoming increasingly pressing at that time, which is why there arose the need for a specialized ethnographic expedition.
A Chinese from Aigun in Primorye. Manzi – Chinese workers in Primorye. Around 1875. Photos by V.V. Lanin
The research was to be conducted comprehensively starting with the border areas adjacent to China, namely the Ussuri region, where a relatively small area hosts numerous ethnic groups. Alongside this, it was proposed to carry out archaeological work, examining the remains of ancient settlements, ruins, and fortifications.
For conducting these tasks, no figure was better suited than Palladius-Kafarov. “His profound knowledge in geography, history, and philology of Manchuria, China, and Korea provided the best assurance that his trip would yield the most abundant and important results,” wrote P.P. Semenov-Tian-Shansky about this prominent ethnographer.
While the official correspondence with the Ober-Procurator of the Holy Synod regarding Palladius’s permission to participate in the expedition was underway, the Secretary of the Geographical Society, F.R. Osten-Sacken, wrote a personal letter to the archimandrite offering him the opportunity to undertake the journey.
He immediately responded, expressing his agreement and stating his intention to travel to the Primorye region not by the usual caravan route through Mongolia and then Kyakhta, but directly through Blagoveshchensk. This route could provide entirely new information about the journey.
The permission from the religious authorities was soon granted, and Palladius began preparing for the journey. The Governor-General of Eastern Siberia, M.S. Korsakov, assigned him an experienced topographer, Grigory Nakhvalny, who was to create new maps of the route based on visual surveys. Nakhvalny was a seasoned topographer, having contributed to most of the maps of Siberia and the Far East.
On June 21, 1870, after successfully reaching the Russian frontier, the expedition traveled down the Amur River to Khabarovka, where they transferred to the steamboat Sungacha and sailed up the Ussuri River. On July 7, the travelers crossed Lake Khanka and arrived at Kamyeny-Rybolov, a small military post, and three days later, they took a boat to the village of Nikolskoye, which Palladius had chosen as the main site for their work.
Village of Nikolskoye. Around 1875. Photo by V.V. Lanin
The village of Nikolskoye (now the city of Ussuriysk) was located on the postal route from Vladivostok to the Kamyshlov post. As Palladius noted in his diary, it consisted of "seventy households; since each peasant tried to occupy as much land as possible for his house and garden, the settlement spread out over a large area.
The inhabitants, almost exclusively Astrakhan settlers, brought with them their dialects, customs, beliefs, and house arrangements. They do not welcome immigrants from other Russian provinces and try to push them away, which is why the Voronezh settlers formed a separate street, apart from the Astrakhan settlers."
The traveler Alyabyev, who visited Nikolskoye a year before Palladius, recounted the following episode in his work "Faraway Russia — The Ussuri Region." He wrote: "The wife of the peasant with whom I stayed was talking about her former homeland and, for some reason I can't recall, mentioned the difficulties of fasting here. Wanting to comfort her, I said:
"What can be done? God will forgive, after all, this isn't Russia. I used the word 'Russia' in the sense that all the locals use it, meaning that they were not native to this place."
"No, sir, that’s nothing, — she replied, — we'll live here a little longer, and we’ll make this Russia ourselves..."
The very next day, Palladius set out to explore the ancient settlement near Nikolskoye. Walking along the massive rampart, he saw traces of ancient streets and houses. He spent about ten days studying the surrounding area.
In his sketches, he marked the remaining statues of people and rams. Palladius also carefully examined a stone turtle standing on a small mound. In the village, he acquired more than ten copper coins, found by settlers in the ruins of the ancient settlement, shedding some light on the history of the region.
F.F. Busse Archaeological site plan in the village of Nikolskoye. 1885. OIAK Archive.
The Chinese researcher Chen Kaike noted that Palladius also took an interest in the Koreans while in Nikolskoye.
In a letter to the Geographic Society in St. Petersburg, Palladius wrote:
"All my time is taken up by trips, travels, inspections, and organizing my notes. I hope that winter will give me more leisure time. The summer season is not very convenient for examining antiquities: everything is overgrown with thick, tall grass or dense forest thickets; moreover, it rains constantly here. I am waiting for autumn to supplement and verify my observations. …
It is needless to repeat that this region presents a vast field for archaeological research; for example, almost the entire course of the Suifun River (Razdolnaya) was lined with settlements and military fortifications, and the area around the village of Nikolskoye seemed especially important in a strategic sense."
One of Palladius' main tasks was to gather information about the smaller ethnic groups, particularly the Nanai people. By the time the traveler reached Nikolskoye, they had already migrated to northern Primorye, so the scholar decided to search for them there, boarding a passing steamboat from Vladivostok.
At the end of July, after leaving Nakhvalnykh in Nikolskoye to finish drawing up the final map of Primorye, Palladius departed for Vladivostok. At the mouth of the Razdolnaya River, he boarded the "Suifun," a small passenger steamboat. It seemed that even the small waves of Amur Bay threatened to break the "delicate, thin, and at the same time long" vessel, as Palladius described it.
However, the crossing ended successfully. Captain Weckman skillfully navigated into Semyonovsky Cove and docked at a small pier. The traveler struggled to step over the roughly cut logs meant for the Vladivostok post, which lay scattered chaotically along the shore.
Eagle's Hill. Vladivostok, 1871. Photo by V.V. Lanin.
It was possible to reach the post by following a narrow path that led up the hill and crossed a stream. That morning, the rain had started pouring and it was muddy and slippery, making it difficult for Palladius to cover the two miles separating Semenovsky Bay from the post.
In his diary, Palladius described the impression the future city made on him:
“Vladivostok was divided into three parts; the central part was occupied by the city's residents; to the east of it, a mile away, was a military land post called the 'Artillery' because there had once been a battery there, now disbanded; several huge cannons still lay on the shore of the bay. The western part of the city belonged to the naval department; there were barracks for the coast guard, a mechanical establishment, and a small dock. The deserted indentation of the bay was called the Golden Horn.
The city had up to six shops, one of which was Russian; all were filled with poor-quality wines and manufactured goods from Hamburg and America. The population numbered about 800, but most were in service."
During the few days that Palladius stayed in Vladivostok, it either rained or there was a drizzling fog. There were no ships heading to the northern coast, and Palladius was willing to reach at least Nakhodka or Olga. However, the captain of the "Aleut," which was heading there, could not guarantee to take him back before winter, so the trip had to be postponed.
However, on one of the sunny days, he took a trip to Russky Island in Novik Bay. There, he also discovered interesting archaeological finds: traces of an ancient fortress.
Svetlanskaya Street (the location of the current post office) Vladivostok, 1871. Photo by V.V. Lanin
On August 10, having finally given up hope of reaching the northern Primorye, Palladius returned to the village of Nikolskoye. There, he continued his research and observations of the life and customs of the local residents, recent settlers.
"They wandered with various stops for three years until they reached the Kankai District," the scholar wrote in his diary, "and during the journey, they lost a large part of their cattle and money. It would have been much more advantageous to make the move by sea directly to Vladivostok."
The ethnographer got to know the villagers better, visited their homes, and observed the customs and traditions of the settlers. He found the lifestyle of the Nikolskoye inhabitants quite unusual, not typical for central Russia; some aspects seemed as if they had been transported from deep antiquity.
In late autumn, weddings were celebrated in Nikolskoye. Friends of the groom would ride horses into the village, with red ribbons fluttering from their hats. A red flag would be hoisted above the newlyweds' house after the wedding festivities.
In winter, the young people gathered for evening parties. On Christmas and Epiphany, they sang hymns and songs that echoed the past. Palladius wrote that "the Astrakhan people cannot be reproached for their drunkenness, although there are rare cases of binge drinking."
On January 2, 1871, Palladius set out from Nikolskoye to Vladivostok on three sleighs across the frozen river. He intended to depart for Olga at the very beginning of the navigation season. When leaving Nikolskoye, the weather was clear and frosty with no wind, but as he neared the sea, the conditions worsened. The sleigh road to Vladivostok passed through the Amur Bay. Midway, the sleigh Palladius was on fell through the ice, but fortunately, the incident ended without major issues.
In Vladivostok, it was cold and windy. Only one steamship, the "Vostok," was wintering in the bay, having replaced the "Alyut." The military governor of the Primorye region allowed Palladius to use this vessel for trips to Posyet, Nakhodka, and Olga, with only the start of the navigation season remaining to be awaited.
Palladius managed to add to his collection: from a naval officer named Petrov, he acquired a rare ancient artifact—a dark green stone axe, skillfully carved from diorite. The officer had found it while digging a cellar on the bay's shore and willingly sold it to the traveler.
While waiting for the navigation season to begin, Palladius acquainted himself with the early settlers of Vladivostok and engaged in long conversations with them. He noted in his records that "knowledgeable people predict a brilliant future for Vladivostok."
On March 14, a strip of blue water appeared in the East Bosphorus Strait, but it wasn't until two weeks later, on March 30, when a strong southerly wind began moving the ice in Golden Horn Bay. The movement was so forceful that it caused significant damage to the port.
The transport vessel "Baikal," which was moored at the Marine Section (in the area of the current Nakhodka monument), had its hull pierced by massive sharp ice floes. The ship, which stored port supplies such as sails and ropes, sank stern-first onto the ground. Logs, crates, and barrels floated around the bay as water had also flooded the dock. The bow of the "Baikal" was lifted and stuck out of the water, allowing the remaining cargo to slide off the deck into the water. Only the huge stone millstones at the stern held the ship in place due to their weight, but the vessel was doomed.
A year later, Lieutenant Lavrov, commander of the schooner "Alyut," concluded: "… regarding the hull of the 'Baikal,' I believe that making any efforts to raise it is not worthwhile. The best approach to clear the bay is to blow it up with mines," which was eventually done.
But that was a year later; for now, Palladius looked with reverence at the historic vessel of Nakhodka from the steep shore.
On April 5, 1871, the traveler departed for southern Primorye aboard the schooner "Vostok," heading to Posyet Bay. Passing by Gamov Cape, Palladius wrote:
"The cape is named in honor of Officer Gamov of the General Staff, who was part of our scholarly workers' cohort, who with hardships and various difficulties scientifically explored the unknown lands of Primorsky Krai; it would be unforgivable not to immortalize their names alongside the elusive Bosphorus and Golden Horn; we could do without Odysseus, Diomedes, and Patroclus when we have our own Odysseus of science and self-sacrifice."
Certainly, one could argue with Archimandrite Palladius about geographical names, but he was undoubtedly right in raising the issue of immortalizing the names of those who contributed to the exploration of Primorye. He knew firsthand how difficult and arduous the path of a scholar and traveler could be.
However, he was mistaken in one respect: the cape was not named after Officer Gamov, a participant in the Ussuri Expedition, but rather in honor of his namesake, midshipman Dmitry Gamov from the frigate "Pallada," who was the first to sight the cape.
On April 7, the "Vostok" anchored in Posyet. Palladius spent several days there conducting research on the surrounding areas.
"I very much regretted," wrote Palladius, "that I did not meet the former post commander Dyachenko, who had spent many years here and had studied the country thoroughly; he was one of the few surviving companions of Count Muravyov-Amursky, who still fondly remembered the epic times of acquiring the Golden Horn in the Far East."
On the way to Nakhodka, Palladius visited Slavyanka, which was then a very small outpost. He was quite taken with Nakhodka, recalling it as follows:
"This small but deep bay is surrounded by mountains on all sides; the factory is located right on the shore of the bay. A large swamp, intersected by ditches for drying it out, separates the mechanical establishments from the residential houses (about ten houses); a stream of fresh water flows through the middle of the swamp.
At that very moment, a call had just sounded from a wooden tower, and soon life began to stir in this little corner, with the sound of axes in the carpentry shop, the clang of hammers in the blacksmith’s shop, the hissing of steam in the sawmill and the flour mill. It was pleasing to see the neatness of the buildings, the order prevailing everywhere. On a raised spot stood the manager's house with the banner of the estate department."
For nearly a month, Palladius stayed in Nakhodka. During this time, he visited the Golden Valley, where he discovered many archaeological sites.
The traveler spent almost the entire summer conducting research, visiting Olga, Vladimir, and Nakhodka. However, as the expedition’s deadline approached, Palladius began to think about returning to his regular place of service in China.
Upon arrival in Vladivostok, Palladius encountered an unusual vessel: enormous red iron wheels on the bow and stern of the steamboat, with a long black hull, which made it stand out among the sleek sailing ships.
This was the "Africa," belonging to the Danish Telegraph Company, which was preparing to lay an underwater cable between Vladivostok, Nagasaki, and Shanghai. Next to the "Africa" was the military frigate "Tordenskjold"—an old wooden sailing ship with a massive rig, which was accompanying the "Africa."
Upon learning that these ships were scheduled to depart in the coming days, Palladius asked the commander of the frigate, Luntz, if he could join as a passenger. The commander kindly agreed. That same evening, the scholar said farewell to the officers of the "Vostok," with whom he had become very close during the sea voyage. In turn, the officers honored the scholar by transferring him to the frigate in a boat.
Soon, both Danish vessels weighed anchor and took to the open sea. There, the "Africa" was fitted with a cable from the telegraph station, and it proceeded at a slow pace towards the open sea.
Unfortunately, the ethnographer's report on the expedition to Primorye was not published. The extensive information collected remained only in the form of diary entries and brief notes.
On the way from China to St. Petersburg, Palladius passed away.
The first chairman of the Society for the Study of the Amur Region, Fyodor Fyodorovich Busse, located his manuscript diary from the expedition period at the Russian Geographical Society and attempted to publish it with the help of another active member of the society, Mikhail Grigorievich Shevelev. Viktor Ananyevich Panov, editor of the newspaper Dalniy Vostok, made verbatim selections from this manuscript.
"At present," he informed the readers of Dalniy Vostok, "I am using the data from the diary and the published letters of Palladius both to supplement and clarify each other and as material that, when published for general knowledge, may interest someone and prompt them to contribute to our knowledge of the history and archaeology of the Amur region with their own work, as well as to better understand its ethnography, which remains quite disjointed due to the lack of historical groundwork."
In his presentation of Palladius's diary and letters, Panov selected only those parts directly related to the history and archaeology of the region. Several issues of Dalniy Vostok featured excerpts from the diary, but it was never fully published, and now only a few researchers read the sparse lines of Palladius's narrative preserved in the archive.
"Addressing the population of the Ussuri Region," wrote Archimandrite Palladius, "we cannot fail to notice the profound and significant changes in its tribal composition. The establishment of Russian agricultural settlements has an irresistible influence on the surrounding non-Russian inhabitants."
Archaeological artifacts examined by Archimandrite Palladius in the village of Nikolskoye, now stored in the Museum of the History of the Far East named after V.K. Arseniev.
Chinese researcher Chen Kaike evaluates the results of Archimandrite Palladius’s expedition ambiguously:
“Initially, the expedition was presented as a ‘scientific’ endeavor, but it soon revealed itself as part of a broader strategy of aggressive expansion. This approach was aimed at maintaining control over the newly acquired territories. The strategy involved starting with extensive ‘exploratory trips’ to understand the region, followed by the Russification of these lands. This method was key to the success of Tsarist Russia’s expansion.
It’s evident that Palladius’s expedition to the South-Ussuri region was merely one in a series of similar missions. While his work had significant academic value, it also had a clear political agenda. The extent to which a scholar can choose between scientific and political motives is always uncertain, and Palladius might not have had a choice in the matter.
Nonetheless, the Tsarist Russian authorities did not foresee that these organized expeditions, despite their frequency, would not achieve their goals. Palladius’s expedition ultimately demonstrated that the territory east of the Ussuri River was not unclaimed land prior to Russian occupation, but rather a region inhabited by various Chinese ethnic groups. The antiquities discovered during the expedition stand as clear evidence of this.”
On November 25, 2019, the Saint Petersburg Theological Academy on the Neva River held a ceremonial unveiling of a bust honoring one of the founders of Russian academic sinology—Archimandrite Palladius (Kafarov).
